Adler's Physiology of the Eye. Table of contents

  • Cover image
  • Title page
  • Table of Contents
  • Any screen, Any time, Anywhere
  • Copyright
  • Dedication
  • Section Editors
  • Contributors
  • Preface
  • Acknowledgments
  • Abbreviations
  • Video Table of Contents
  • Section 1: Focusing of an Image on the Retina
  • 1. Optics
  • Abstract
  • The young eye
  • The image of the human adult eye
  • Visual acuity as log MAR
  • The aging eye
  • References
  • 2. Optical Aberrations and Wavefront Sensing
  • Abstract
  • Optical aberrations
  • The impact of HOAs on vision
  • Treatments to alleviate the impact of HOAs
  • Wavefront sensing
  • References
  • 3. Accommodation
  • Accommodation
  • The optical requirements for accommodation
  • Depth of field
  • Visual acuity
  • The anatomy of the accommodative apparatus
  • The mechanism of accommodation in the lens and eye
  • Accommodative optical changes in the lens and eye
  • The stimulus to accommodate
  • The pharmacology of accommodation
  • Measurement of accommodation
  • Presbyopia
  • Factors contributing to presbyopia
  • Conclusions
  • Acknowledgments
  • References
  • Section 2: Physiology of Optical Media
  • 4. Cornea and Sclera
  • Abstract
  • Cornea
  • Sclera
  • References
  • 5. The Lens
  • Abstract
  • Introduction
  • The organization, development, and growth of the lens
  • Structural determinants of the transparent and refractive properties of the lens
  • Effect of changes in fiber cell junctions on regional differences in lens structure
  • Effects of regional differences in fiber cell morphology on lens transparency, optics, and biomechanics
  • Metabolic determinants of the transparent and refractive properties of the lens
  • Physiological determinants of the transparent and refractive properties of the lens
  • Effects of age on the transparent and refractive properties of the lens
  • Acknowledgments
  • References
  • 6. Vitreous
  • Abstract
  • Biochemistry
  • Anatomy
  • Vitreous biophysics
  • Embryology and development
  • Vitreous aging
  • Physiology
  • Conclusions
  • Acknowledgments
  • References
  • Section 3: Direction of Gaze
  • 7. The Extraocular Muscles
  • Abstract
  • Introduction
  • The bony orbit
  • Extraocular muscle anatomy
  • Disorders of eye movements
  • Muscle diseases in which extraocular muscles are preferentially spared
  • Muscle diseases where extraocular muscles are preferentially involved
  • Conclusion
  • References
  • 8. Neural Control of Eye Movements
  • Abstract
  • Introduction
  • Final common pathway
  • Premotor control of gaze redirection
  • Premotor control of gaze stabilization: the vestibulo-ocular and optokinetic reflexes
  • Interactions between eye movement subsystems
  • NEUROLOGIC disorders of the oculomotor system
  • References
  • 9. Three-Dimensional Eye Movements: Kinematics, Control, and Perceptual Consequences
  • Abstract
  • Introduction
  • Three-dimensional ocular kinematics
  • Eye-in-head motion
  • Three-dimensional kinematics during head-unrestrained gaze shifts
  • Three-dimensional control mechanisms
  • Brainstem oculomotor coordinates
  • Higher-level transformations
  • The reference frame transformation
  • The two-dimensional to three-dimensional transformation
  • Perceptual consequences
  • Monocular consequences
  • Binocular consequences
  • Conclusions
  • References
  • Section 4: Nutrition of the Eye
  • 10. Production and Flow of Aqueous Humor
  • Introduction
  • Structure of the ciliary body and ciliary epithelium
  • Aqueous humor composition
  • Regulation of aqueous humor formation
  • Aqueous humor drainage
  • Obstruction of outflow
  • Pharmacology and regulation of outflow
  • Summary
  • References
  • 11. Ocular Circulation
  • Abstract
  • The vascular system of the eye
  • Oxygenation and blood flow of the retina
  • Techniques for measuring blood flow
  • Regulation of ocular blood flow
  • References
  • 12. Metabolic Interactions Between Neurons and Glial Cells
  • Abstract
  • Retinal energy metabolism
  • Retinal oxygen distribution and consumption
  • The role of glycolysis underlying retinal function: from whole retina to its parts
  • Biochemical specialization of glial cells
  • Role of glycogen
  • Functional neuronal activity and division of metabolic labor
  • Cellular compartmentation of energy substrates other than glucose
  • Experimental models of retinal metabolism and function
  • Metabolic interactions between vertebrate photoreceptors and Müller glia
  • Metabolic interaction between photoreceptors and retinal pigment epithelial
  • Metabolic factors in the regulation of retinal blood flow
  • Metabolic pathway leading to nitric oxide release
  • Acknowledgments
  • References
  • 13. The Function of the Retinal Pigment Epithelium
  • Abstract
  • Absorption of light
  • Transepithelial transport
  • Capacitive compensation of fast changes in the ion composition in the subretinal space
  • Visual cycle
  • Phagocytosis of photoreceptor outer segments
  • Secretion
  • Active immune barrier
  • References
  • Section 5: Protection of the Eye
  • 14. Functions of the Orbit and Eyelids
  • Abstract
  • Orbital anatomy and function
  • Facial and eyelid anatomy and function
  • Eyelid musculature
  • References
  • 15. Formation and Function of the Tear Film
  • Abstract
  • Tear film overview
  • Glycocalyx
  • Mucous production
  • Aqueous production
  • Lipid layer
  • REFERENCES
  • 16. Sensory Innervation of the Eye
  • Abstract
  • Anatomy of ocular sensory nerves
  • Development, remodeling and regeneration of corneal innervation
  • Functional characteristics of ocular sensory innervation
  • Trophic effects of ocular primary sensory neurons
  • Morphologic and functional alterations of ocular sensory innervation by injury, inflammation, and aging
  • Sensations arising from the eye
  • References
  • 17. Outward-Directed Transport
  • Abstract
  • Efflux transporters
  • Methods of studying transporters
  • Corneal outward transport
  • Blood-retinal barrier outward transport
  • Other ocular barriers
  • Transporter genetics and implications in ocular diseases
  • Pharmacologic impact of outward transport
  • Future aspects
  • References
  • Section 6: Photoreception
  • 18. Biochemical Cascade of Phototransduction
  • Abstract
  • Overview
  • Location and compartmentalization of rods and cones
  • Dark-adapted rods
  • Comparison of cones and rods
  • Phototransduction and disease
  • What we don't know
  • Where the field is headed
  • References
  • 19. Photoresponses of Rods and Cones
  • Abstract
  • Photovoltage response to flashes
  • Photocurrent response to flashes
  • Modulation of the flash response by bicarbonate
  • Detection of single photons
  • Photocurrent response to steady light
  • Action spectra of rods and cones
  • CNG channel and sodium/potassium/calcium exchanger
  • Role of inner segment conductances
  • Summary
  • Acknowledgments
  • References
  • 20. Light Adaptation in Photoreceptors
  • Abstract
  • Vision from starlight to sunlight
  • Performance of the photopic and scotopic divisions of the visual system
  • Light adaptation of the electrical responses of cones and rods
  • Molecular basis of photoreceptor light adaptation
  • Slow changes in rods: light adaptation or dark adaptation?
  • Dark adaptation of the rods: very slow recovery from bleaching
  • References
  • Section 7: Visual Processing in the Retina
  • 21. The Synaptic Organization of the Retina
  • Abstract
  • Kinds of neurons
  • Basic synaptic communication
  • Networks
  • References
  • 22. Signal Processing in the Outer Retina
  • Abstract
  • Introduction
  • Photoreceptors
  • Interplexiform cells
  • Horizontal cells
  • Bipolar cells
  • References
  • 23. Visual Processing in the Inner Retina
  • Abstract
  • The players in the inner retina
  • The playing field
  • Example circuits
  • Conclusions
  • References
  • 24. Electroretinogram
  • Abstract
  • Introduction
  • Generation of the electroretinogram
  • Noninvasive recording of the electroretinogram
  • Classical definition of components of the electroretinogram
  • Slow PIII, the c-wave, and other slow components of the direct-current (dc)- electroretinogram
  • Full-field dark-adapted (Ganzfeld) flash electroretinogram
  • Light-adapted, cone-driven electroretinograms
  • Multifocal electroretinogram
  • Closing comments
  • References
  • Section 8: Non-Perceptive Vision
  • 25. Regulation of Light Through the Pupil
  • Abstract
  • The neuronal pathway of the pupil light reflex and near pupil response
  • Structure of the iris
  • Properties of light and their effect on pupil movement
  • Relative afferent pupillary defects
  • Efferent pupillary defects
  • References
  • 26. Ganglion-Cell Photoreceptors
  • Abstract
  • Historical roots
  • Discovery of melanopsin and ganglion-cell photoreceptors
  • Distinctive functional properties of ipRGCs
  • Synaptic input
  • Synaptic output and physiologic functions
  • Development
  • References
  • Section 9: Visual Processing in the Brain
  • 27. Overview of the Central Visual Pathways
  • Abstract
  • Targets of the retinal projections
  • Retinotopic pathways and visual field lesions
  • Acknowledgments
  • References
  • 28. Optic Nerve
  • Abstract
  • Optic nerve anatomy
  • Optic nerve axon counts and dimensions
  • Microscopic anatomy and cytology
  • Blood supply
  • Optic nerve development
  • Optic nerve physiology
  • Optic nerve injury
  • Optic nerve repair
  • Conclusions
  • Acknowledgements
  • References
  • 29. Processing in the Lateral Geniculate Nucleus
  • Abstract
  • The lateral geniculate nucleus: the gateway to conscious visual perception
  • Lateral geniculate nucleus anatomy
  • Lateral geniculate nucleus development and cellular taxonomy
  • Lateral geniculate nucleus inputs
  • Lateral geniculate nucleus circuitry
  • Lateral geniculate nucleus outputs
  • Lateral geniculate nucleus receptive fields
  • Lateral geniculate nucleus map of visual space
  • Retinogeniculate transmission
  • Modulation of lateral geniculate nucleus activity
  • Conclusions
  • References
  • 30. Primary Visual Cortex
  • Abstract
  • Overview
  • Visual inputs to V1 and local cortical circuits
  • Processing in V1: classical and extraclassical receptive fields, functional architecture, and long-range connections
  • Output streams from V1
  • Plasticity, learning and context-dependent processing in V1
  • When things go wrong
  • Conclusions
  • Acknowledgments
  • References
  • 31. Extrastriate Visual Cortex
  • Abstract
  • Introduction to the extrastriate cortex
  • The ventral visual network
  • The dorsal visual network
  • Plasticity and rehabilitation
  • References
  • Section 10: Visual Perception
  • 32. Visual Processing of Spatial Form
  • Abstract
  • Early visual mechanisms as feature detectors
  • Adaptation as a tool for understanding vision
  • Objects are defined by spatial changes in luminance, color, contrast, and texture
  • Sensitivity and receptive field size versus eccentricity
  • Suprathreshold vision and contrast constancy
  • The effect of disease on spatial vision
  • Summation and suppression of signals across space and feature
  • A distributed representation along the ventral stream
  • Conclusion
  • References
  • 33. Visual Acuity
  • Abstract
  • Defining and specifying visual acuity
  • Limiting factors in visual acuity
  • Spatial vision with low contrast
  • References
  • 34. Color Vision
  • Abstract
  • Molecular genetics of color vision and color deficiencies
  • Tests of color vision
  • Color appearance
  • Future directions
  • References
  • 35. The Visual Field
  • Abstract
  • Introduction and historical background
  • The psychophysical basis for perimetry and visual field testing
  • The physiologic basis for perimetry
  • Common forms of perimetric testing
  • Detection of sensitivity loss and interpretation of results
  • Visual field loss patterns created by various pathologies
  • Patterns of visual field loss
  • Visual field interpretation guidelines
  • Assessing visual field progression
  • Alternative and new visual field test procedures
  • Tablets and virtual reality headsets
  • Artifactual visual field results
  • Conclusions
  • References
  • 36. Binocular Vision
  • Abstract
  • Introduction
  • Why two eyes?
  • Mapping the two eye’s images into a single percept
  • Visual direction
  • Binocular eye movements
  • Normal retinal correspondence and the horopter
  • Panum’s fusional area
  • Binocular combination and binocular suppression in normal vision
  • Binocular (retinal) disparity and depth perception
  • Anomalies of binocular vision
  • Visual directions and the horopter in Anomalous binocular correspondence
  • Computation of binocular disparity in Anomalous binocular correspondence
  • Subclasses of anomalous correspondence and errors of perceived distance
  • Binocular fusion in Anomalous binocular correspondence
  • Anomalous sensory fusion mechanisms in Anomalous binocular correspondence
  • Anomalous motor fusion mechanisms in Anomalous binocular correspondence
  • Summary
  • Acknowledgments
  • References
  • 37. Temporal Properties of Vision
  • Abstract
  • Temporal summation and the critical duration for single pulses of light (aperiodic stimuli)
  • Temporal sensitivity to periodic stimuli
  • Motion processing
  • Conclusion
  • References
  • Section 11: Development and Deprivation of Vision
  • 38. Development of Vision in Infancy
  • Abstract
  • Methodologies for assessing infant vision and their interpretation
  • Hierarchy of visual processing
  • Motion
  • Binocular vision
  • Object-level processing
  • Summary
  • References
  • 39. Development of Retinogeniculate Projections
  • Abstract
  • Formation of eye-specific territories
  • The optic chiasm is a crucial choice point in establishing RGC axon projections
  • Molecular mechanisms guiding the formation of eye-specific axonal territories
  • Retinogeniculate projections are refined during development
  • Activity-dependent refinement of retinogeniculate projections
  • What parameters of activity drive refinement?
  • Cellular and molecular mechanisms of RGC axon refinement
  • Beyond eye specificity
  • Summary
  • Acknowledgments
  • References
  • 40. Developmental Visual Deprivation
  • Abstract
  • Introduction
  • Effects of early monocular form deprivation
  • Effects of early monocular defocus
  • Effects of early strabismus
  • Amblyopia
  • Summary
  • References
  • 41. The Effects of Visual Deprivation After Infancy
  • Abstract
  • Introduction
  • Neuroanatomical development
  • The perceptual and neural effects of early vision loss
  • What are the mechanisms that underlie cross-modal plasticity?
  • Recovery of sight after early blindness
  • Late blindness
  • Sensory substitution
  • Conclusions
  • Acknowledgments
  • References
  • Index